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Sources

Where the facts come from

Every factual claim on this site links to its source. This is the full list.

How we checked

Each fact was written alongside its source. Our build script stores the source text and, for every fact, checks that the key words and figures really appear in it. 179 of 179 checks passed when this site was last built (checked 3 Nov 2026). Where we couldn’t read a source, we left the claim out. We quote short phrases only, and never reproduce anyone’s photographs or plans.

Figures that change

Opening times, entry and access change, so we don’t give them. This site gives no travel advice.

What we leave out

This is a site about the history of Henry VIII’s coastal forts and about how to read them. It isn’t a visitor guide with live opening times, prices or access advice. Where a source gives an interpretation or says the answer is unknown, we say so rather than choose for it. Where two sources give different numbers or dates, we show both rather than pick one.

English Heritage: Tudors (story of England) and Local Learning (2)

English Heritage: visitor and history pages (14)

UK government (Department for Education) (1)

When sources disagree

Where sources give different dates or numbers, or tell a story differently, we show all of it, with links, and say how we handle it.

How many forts?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Tudors: War article and its Local Learning page say over 30 forts. Its St Mawes history says one of 30 new fortifications. Its Deal history says Deal was one of 42 new artillery forts by 1547. The pages do not say what they counted, for example whether small blockhouses were included.

When was the building programme?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Tudors: War article and its Deal pages say 1539 to 1547. Its Hurst significance page says the chain was built between 1539 and 1545, and its Local Learning page dates Pendennis and St Mawes to 1539 to 1545. Its Yarmouth history says Yarmouth, the last fort of the programme, was begun in 1546 to 1547.

What was the plan called?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Portland history says the Privy Council enacted “the device of the king” in February 1539. Its Local Learning page calls it the “device by the king”. Its Deal pages say the forts are known as Henrician castles or “device forts”.

Were they all round?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Deal history and stories page says they all share the circular design found at Deal. Its Yarmouth history says most did. Its Portland history says Portland was not built to a circular design, and Yarmouth was built with an angle bastion instead.

How real was the threat?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Walmer history says the pope urged France and the Emperor to invade, and calls the threat “perceived”. Its Deal page speaks of a threatened invasion. Its Portland history says how real the threat was is debatable, and its Hurst history says the fear had generally died down by 1540. In 1545 French soldiers did land on the Isle of Wight.

Which years did Spain plan to invade?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Pendennis history lists 1574, 1579, 1588 and 1596 to 1597. Its Local Learning page lists 1584, 1588 and 1597. Its St Mawes history says 1596 and 1597. Its Walmer history lists 1567, 1587 to 1588 and 1596 to 1597, and its Deal history lists invasion scares in 1568 to 1570, 1583 to 1588 and 1596 to 1599. Some pages list invasion “scares” and crises rather than planned invasions.

When did Charles V reign?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Deal history gives 1516 to 1556 for Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor. Its Portland history gives 1519 to 1558. The pages do not say why they differ.

When was the alliance against Henry?

How we handle it: English Heritage’s Walmer history says early in 1539. Its St Mawes history says 1538. Its Portland history says 1538 to 1539.

Which fort survives best?

How we handle it: English Heritage calls St Mawes perhaps the best surviving example of a Henrician artillery fort, Hurst among the best preserved of Henry’s castles, Deal the most elaborate, Camber unusually unaltered, and Pendennis one of England’s finest surviving coastal fortresses.